LSD

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Hallucinogen

LSD stands for its chemical name, lysergic acid diethylamide, and is commonly called ‘acid’. It’s a powerful hallucinogenic drug – this means that users are likely to experience a distorted view of objects and reality, including seeing and sometimes hearing things that aren’t there (these are hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind). The experience of taking LSD is known as a ‘trip‘. Trips can be good or bad, but until you take it you don’t know how it will affect you – and once it’s started you can’t stop it ¹.

Here are some of the main effects and risks of taking LSD –

• Time and movement can appear to speed up and slow down. Colour, sound and objects can get distorted and you can experience double vision.
• These distortions of your senses can be quite unpredictable, sometimes pleasant, but sometimes very frightening (these are called ‘bad trips’) ¹.

In its pure state, LSD is a white odourless powder. However, it usually comes in squares of gelatine or blotting paper that have been dipped or soaked in LSD ². LSD is also sometimes sold as a liquid, in a tablet or in capsules ³.

Found as tablets or on blotting paper, which can come in all sorts of colours and designs ⁴.

LSD, in its pure state, comes as crystals that can be dissolved in distilled water to make a clear, odourless liquid. This is usually soaked into sheets of paper (‘blotters’) which are cut into small squares (‘tabs’) for sale at a street level. The square may be plain paper or thin card, or may be over-printed with a design. These are many and varied, and include cartoon characters, (‘Bart Simpson’, ‘Batman’) new-age symbols (‘Ohm’-designs), or just about anything else – strawberries, penguins, smiley faces and so on. Microdots are small dark brown/black pellets, slightly larger than a pin-head ⁵.

LSD is a semi-synthetic drug that is chemically made from lysergic acid derived from Ergot, a grain fungus that typically grows on rye. Usually it is illicitly manufactured in Britain or Europe. LSD availability decreased towards the end of the 1990’s ⁶.

LSD is derived from the fungus ergot through a series of complex chemical processes. While various internet sources profess ‘easy’ manufacturing processes, production of LSD is not straightforward and requires specialist resources and knowledge. Some production methods found on-line and in ‘cook-books’ could result in highly dangerous compounds, which can and have resulted in fatal poisoning. UK LSD is produced within the British Isles or imported from Mainland Europe ⁵.

Among young adults (15- to 34-year-olds), lifetime prevalence of LSD use varies between countries, from 0.1% to 5.4%. Last year use of LSD in this age group ranges from 0% to 1.7%. Lifetime prevalence of LSD (or other hallucinogen use, excluding hallucinogenic mushrooms) among 15- to 16-year-old school students ranged from 1% to 5% in the 24 EU Member States and Norway with ESPAD surveys in 2011, with only the Czech Republic reporting a prevalence level of 5% ⁷.

According to Home Office statistics published in 2016, LSD use fell in 2015/16 among 16 to 59 year olds in England and Wales from 0.4 to 0.2%. This is a fall of around 58,000 people compared to the previous year.

Use among 16 to 24 year olds halved, falling from 1.2% to 0.6%. This is 42,000 fewer people than in the previous year ⁸.

In 2011, the mean cost to users of a unit of LSD ranged from EUR 4.5 (Netherlands) to EUR 25 (Italy). The mean price of LSD, corrected for inflation, decreased 14% at European level 2006 – 2011 ⁷.

Prices can vary from region to region, but on average LSD costs £1 – £5 a tab ¹.

It is cheap (around £1 – £5 each), easy both to conceal and to use ⁶, £2 – £4 per tab ⁵.

LSD can be found in some forms –

• Liquid is often found in vials with a pipette. Liquid LSD is often dropped into the mouth, tongue, or dropped into sugar cubes before being consumed. There should be no bitter metallic taste which numbs the mouth, as this instead indicates the presence of a 25x-NBOMe compound.
• Tablets and ‘microdots are very small tablets which are swallowed.
• Blotters are sheets of blotting paper that are dipped into an LSD/alcohol solution which is then either swallowed or chewed sublingually. There should not be a bitter metallic taste which numbs the mouth when chewing the blotters as this instead indicates the presence of a 25x-NBOMe compound.
• Powder can be taken orally, sublingually, via injection or by insufflation, but would usually be diluted to a liquid or ‘laid’ on blotter to allow for accurate dosing.
• Gel tabs can be taken orally and are small pieces of gelatin which contain LSD. These have been less common, but are still occasionally present in some areas of the world ⁹.

The effects of LSD last for around 8 hours. This is dose-dependent, though, and higher doses can produce effects lasting for 12 hours or longer ¹⁰.

LSD was first synthesised by Albert Hoffman while working for Sandoz Laboratories in Basel in 1938. Some years later, during a re-evaluation of the compound, he accidentally ingested a small amount and described the first ‘trip’. During the 1950’s and 1960’s, Sandoz evaluated the drug for therapeutic purposes and marketed it under the name Delysid®. It was used for research into the chemical origins of mental illness. Recreational use started in the 1960’s and is associated with the ‘psychedelic period’.

Physical effects (e.g. dilated pupils, mild hypertensionhigh blood pressure and occasionally raised body temperature) appear first. Sensory-perceptual changes are the outstanding features of LSD. Visual disturbances are perceived with eyes closed or open and may consist of geometric shapes or figures in patterns. Flashes of intense colour are seen and stable objects may appear to move and dissolve. Cross-sensory perception (synaesthesiaa condition in which normally separate senses are fused, in which one type of stimulation evokes the sensation of another, as when the hearing of a sound produces the visualisation of a colour More) such as ‘coloured hearing’ can occur where sounds such as voices or music evoke perception of particular colours or shapes. The perception of time may appear to slow down.

The mode of action of LSD is not well understood. It is thought to interact with the serotonin system by binding to and activating 5-hydroxytryptamine subtype 2 receptor (5-HT2), which interferes with inhibitory systems resulting in perceptual disturbances. It is amongst the most potent drugs known, being active at doses from about 20 micrograms. Typical doses are now about 20 to 80 micrograms although in the past, doses as high as 300 micrograms were common. Like other hallucinogens, dependence does not occur.

When taken orally, the effects become apparent within about 30 minutes and may continue for 8 to 12 hours or more. The duration and intensity of effects are dose-dependant. The plasma half-lifethe amount of time required for the amount of something to fall to half its initial value is about two-and-a-half hours. Following a dose of 160 micrograms to 13 subjects, plasma concentrations varied considerably up to 9 micrograms/L. In humans, LSD is extensively transformed in the liver by hydroxylation and glucuronide conjugation to inactive metabolites. Only about 1% is excreted unchanged in the urine in 24 hours. A major metabolite found in urine is 2-oxylysergide.

Panic reactions (bad trips) may be sufficiently severe to require medical support. Patients usually recover within a few hours but occasionally hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind last up to 48 hours and psychoticthis is a mental state when you see or hear things which aren't there and have delusions More states for 3 – 4 days. The effects are greatly affected by the set (an individual’s mental state) and the setting (surroundings) in which the drug is taken. Sensory disturbances known as ‘flashbacks’ sometimes occur. Serious side-effects often attributed to LSD such as irrational acts leading to suicide or accidental deaths, are extremely rare. Deaths attributed to LSD overdose are virtually unknown ⁷.

After being taken, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) molecules are detected in the CNSthe Central Nervous System, upon which certain drugs act by a large group of receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More that span cell membranes. These receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More (called G-protein coupled receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More or GPCRs) have many sub-types including those for the neurotransmitters dopamine (involved in reward-seeking behaviour) and serotonin (involved in the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep and memory). They recognise, and are stimulated by LSD molecules when they are in the body but outside cells then activate responses within cells that give rise to LSD’s pharmacological effects.

In common with other psychedelic/hallucinogenic drugs, LSD binds to many receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More for the neurotransmitter serotonin receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More but not strongly enough to induce significant pharmacological effects at typical recreational doses. An exception to this is the serotonin 2A receptor (also known as the 5-HT2A receptor), which is known to induce hallucinogenic effects when stimulated by psychedelic/hallucinogenic drugs (or agonists) such as LSD. Drugs that stimulate pharmacological effects after binding to receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More are called ‘agonists’.

Although LSD binds tightly to the serotonin 2A receptor, the maximum pharmacological effect it causes is lower than that for other similar drugs and once that maximum is reached, further stimulationcan be defined as any changes in a person's energy levels which are interpreted as stimulating and encouraging when it comes to movement and physical activities such as running, walking, cleaning, socializing, dancing, and climbing More of these receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More is blocked. For this reason, LSD is described as a ‘strong partial agonist’ at the serotonin 2A receptor.

In contrast with other psychedelic/ hallucinogenic drugs that bind to serotonin receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More, LSD also binds to, and stimulates many dopamine receptorsnerve endings that sense changes in the body More. This binding is thought to stimulate some of the non-hallucinogenic effects of LSD ⁴.

LSD is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine (especially in solution) ¹⁴. Its potency may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at cold temperatures around 0°C or below, but will slowly degrade at normal room temperature (25°C). In one study, there was a 10% loss of potency after LSD was kept at room temperature for one month ¹⁵. However, there are also many anecdotal reports from users who have successfully stored LSD at room temperature for years which contradict the findings of this study ⁹.

As a street drug, LSD is usually sold as tiny squares of paper with pictures on them. These are most commonly called tabs or blotters. But it can also be found as a liquid or as tiny pellets.

Tabs (or pellets) are swallowed. Drops of liquid acid are sometimes dripped onto food, like a sugar cube, and then eaten. Acid can take from 20 minutes to up to two hours to take effect – so some people think it hasn’t worked, take more and then find it’s too much to handle.

Until you take a tab of acid you can’t tell how strong it is or how it’s going to affect you. How the trip goes can be affected by who you are, how you’re feeling and how comfortable you are with the people you’re with ¹.

LSD usually comes in little paper squares (blotter) which have been soaked in tiny quantities of LSD solution and dried. Instead of paper, LSD has also been found in coloured gelatine pieces (gel tabs), tablets or very tiny pills called microdots. Once common was the use of sugar cubes which had a drop of LSD solution put on them. Alternatively, a solution can be directly dropped onto the tongue from a dropper bottle. When dealing with an actual LSD solution, there is a risk of taking much more than intended.

However it comes, the drug is held under the tongue and/or chewed. Few people would want to take LSD very regularly, people usually take it seriously and treat a trip as an infrequent and special experience ¹⁶.

LSD can be found in some forms –

• liquid is often found in vials with a pipette. Liquid LSD is often dropped into the mouth, tongue, or dropped into sugar cubes before being consumed. There should be no bitter metallic taste which numbs the mouth, as this instead indicates the presence of a 25x-NBOMe compound,
• tablets and microdots are very small tablets which are swallowed,
• blotters are sheets of blotting paper that are dipped into an LSD/alcohol solution which is then either swallowed or chewed sublingually. There should not be a bitter metallic taste which numbs the mouth when chewing the blotters as this instead indicates the presence of a 25x-NBOMe compound,
• powder can be taken orally, sublingually, via injection or by insufflation, but would usually be diluted to a liquid or ‘laid’ on blotter to allow for accurate dosing,
• gel tabs can be taken orally and are small pieces of gelatin which contain LSD. These have been less common, but are still occasionally present in some areas of the world ⁹.

LSD is odourless, colourless and is not associated with any paraphernalia and so there are no tell-tale smells or equipment associated with this drug.

The main indicators include –

• dilated pupils,
• significantly altered behaviour,
  • mood-swings,
  • responding to hallucinatory audio or visual cues,
  • experiencing hilarity or panic,
  • disjointed, random or fantastic conversations,
  • fixating on objects or thoughts,
  • not responding to cues and questions in a normal way ⁵.

A good trip can make users feel relaxed and happy, with pleasant hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind. A bad tripa disturbing hallucinogenic experience that can cause users to feel extremely anxious and threatened More can make you feel agitated and confused, with unpleasant and scary hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind. How the trip goes can be affected by your surroundings, who you’re with and how comfortable you are with them, and by your mood. If you don’t feel safe or comfortable, you’re more likely to have a bad tripa disturbing hallucinogenic experience that can cause users to feel extremely anxious and threatened More ¹.

It can also have other effects –

• A trip can appear to involve a speeding up and slowing down of time and movements, while colour, sound and objects can get distorted. Users experience hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind.
• LSD can also make you feel tired, anxious, panicky and depressed.
• LSD can cause unpleasant, frightening or scary hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind and distortions of your senses – and these effects can be quite unpredictable.
• Trips can feed off your imagination and may heighten a mood you’re already in. So if you’re in a bad mood, feeling worried or depressed, LSD may just make these feelings worse ¹.

Taking LSD does involve risks, here’s what it could do to you –

• if you panic or don’t feel safe and comfortable with the people you’re with and where you’re taking LSD, the trip can be confusing and sometimes very scary. Good trips can be pleasant and amusing, but bad trips can be terrifying.
• flashbacks sometimes happen. This is when part of the ‘trip’ is re-lived after the original experience. Flashbacks usually occur within weeks of taking LSD, but can be experienced months or occasionally even years later.
• people have been known to harm themselves during a bad tripa disturbing hallucinogenic experience that can cause users to feel extremely anxious and threatened More. So people in a bad mood, feeling depressed or worried should avoid taking acid.
• LSD could have serious, longer-term implications for somebody who has a history of mental health problems. It may also be responsible for setting off a mental health problem that had previously gone unnoticed.
• there’s no evidence to suggest LSD does any long-term damage to the body or directly causes long-term psychological damage ¹.

If you feel that you’re having – or are going to have – a bad tripa disturbing hallucinogenic experience that can cause users to feel extremely anxious and threatened More, let your friends know and get their help. Go to a nice quiet spot where you feel safe and can relax ¹.

It’s rare for LSD to be impure ¹. Because LSD is so potent, there is no need for it to be adulterated. Laboratories rarely encounter the drug as a powder so rarely measure purity. Also it decomposes in light and at high temperatures ⁷, so trying to adulterate it would be rather difficult.

It is impossible to predict the strength of LSD on the street. While it is possible to get sold a piece of cardboard soaked in nothing, this is less common than one might suppose. However, LSD is not a very stable compound, and degrades in sunlight or warm conditions. So LSD ranges from being very weak to very strong.

To further complicate matters a novel psychoactive compound called 25i-NBOMe appeared on the market around 2013. It was initially unregulated in the UK and was sold on-line and via head-shops. It too was a powerful hallucinogen, with typical doses from around 500 µg. It was often sold on blotters in the same way that LSD was sold and some sources suggest that the same blotter designs associated with LSD were also used for 25-NBOMe (e.g. Purple Ohms).

Anecdotal evidence suggests that experienced users could probably subjectively differentiate the effects of the two drugs but for people with little or no previous experience with either drugs may not know which drug they have taken ⁵.

• strong cravings,
• agitation,
• aggression,
• paranoiasuspicion, distrust or fear of other people,
• depression ²⁵.

How long LSD is detectable in the body depends on several variables, including which kind drug test is being used. LSD – also known as acid and microdot – can be detected for a shorter time with some tests, but can be ‘visible’ for up to three months in other tests.

How often the drug has been taken, how much as been used, and the potency of the dosage can also possibly play a role in how long LSD might be detected by a drug test.

The timetable for detecting LSD in the system is also dependent upon each individual’s metabolism, body mass, age, hydration level, physical activity, health conditions and other factors, making it almost impossible to determine an exact time LSD will show up on a drug test ²⁶.

Of all the hallucinogens, LSD is the most potent known to man. Taken orally, it takes as little as 25 micrograms or 0.000025 grams of LSD to produce rich and vivid hallucinationswhere someone sees, hears, smells, tastes or feels things that don't exist outside of their mind in the user.

While it is possible to test one’s urine for LSD, the very tiny amounts involved makes detection very difficult. There is also the fact that it is rapidly removed from the body, usually within 24 – 48 hours.

Standard and cheap drug tests do not usually screen for LSD. But if it is specifically requested, there are a number of tests which can be performed to detect LSD in the body. Note that these tests tend to be more expensive than your basic drug testing process ²⁷.

• Abuscreen – This is a series of RadioImmunoAssay (RIA) tests developed by Roche Diagnostic Systems. One of these tests is used to screen whole blood, serum (blood), urine and stomach contents for LSD and its metabolites.
• EMIT – Standing for Enzyme Multiplied Immunoassay Technique, EMIT is also a series of tests that can be done to detect LSD and its metabolites in serum and urine. It is a product of Syva Corporation ²⁷.

The following is an estimated range of times, or detection windows, during which LSD can be detected by various testing methods –

• LSD is a Class A drug, so it’s illegal to have, give away or sell.
• Possession is illegal and can get you up to seven years in jail and/or an unlimited fine.
• Supplying someone else, even your friends, can get you up to life imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine ¹.

• Marijuana – When used in conjunction with cannabis, both the visual and cognitive effectsThis refer to impairments in mental processes like memory, learning, decision-making, and problem-solving. These effects can make it harder to function in daily life and may persist even after stopping drug use. More of LSD can be intensified and extended with extreme efficiency. This should be used with caution if one is not experienced with psychedelics. Many users sometimes report a dramatically more intense visual trip when combining it with THCTHC, or tetrahydrocannabinol, is the chemical responsible for most of marijuana's psychological effects concentrates such as hashish as opposed to cannabis flower.
• Dissociatives – When used in combination with dissociatives, the geometrybest described as the experience of a person's field of vision being partially or completely encompassed by fast-moving, colourful and indescribably complex geometric patterns, form constants, phosphenes, shapes, fractals, structures and colour. These geometric forms can also become structured and organised in a way that presents genuine information to the person experiencing it far beyond the perception of meaningless, although complex, shapes and colours. This happens through the experience of innately understood geometric representations that feel as though they depict specific concepts and neurological components that exist within the brain in a manner that is extremely detailed. More, euphoriafeelings of joy and happiness, dissociation and hallucinatory effects are often greatly enhanced. Dissociative-induced holes, spaces, and voids while under the influence of LSD have significantly more vivid visuals than dissociatives alone present, and more intense internal hallucinationsbest described as the perception of imagery and scenes which are experienced exclusively within a layer in front of one's open or closed eye vision and not seamlessly within the external environment around oneself. At lower levels, internal hallucinations begin with imagery which does not take up the entirety of one's visual field and is distinctively separate from its background. These can be described as spontaneous moving or still images of scenes, concepts, places, and anything one could imagine. They are manifested in varying levels of detail, ranging from ill-defined and cartoon-like in nature to completely realistic and beyond realism through seemingly impossible, non-euclidean geometric forms. They rarely hold their form for more than a few seconds before fading or shifting into another image. More and confusiontrouble focusing, slow or disorganised thinking, poor short-term memory, unsure of time or place, or having difficulty following a conversation.
• MDMA – When used in conjunction with MDMASee Ecstasy More, the physical and cognitive effectsThis refer to impairments in mental processes like memory, learning, decision-making, and problem-solving. These effects can make it harder to function in daily life and may persist even after stopping drug use. More of MDMASee Ecstasy More are amplified. The visual, physical and cognitive effectsThis refer to impairments in mental processes like memory, learning, decision-making, and problem-solving. These effects can make it harder to function in daily life and may persist even after stopping drug use. More of LSD are also intensified with an overwhelming euphoric slant manifested through uniquely pleasurable body highs and headspaces, and uniquely colorful and awe-inspiring visuals. It is often recommended to wait at least three hours after ingesting LSD to take MDMASee Ecstasy More so as to avoid coming down from the latter while peaking on the former, but positive experiences are reported with all possible timings. The synergy between these substances is unpredictable, and it is best to start with lower dosages than one would take for both drugs individually.
• Benzodiazepines – When in combination with benzodiazepines, benzodiazepines can, depending on the dosage, slightly to completely reduce the intensity of the cognitive, physical and visual effects of an LSD trip. They are very efficient at stopping bad trips at the cost of amnesiainability to remember and reduced trip intensity. Caution is advised as the addiction potential for benzodiazepines is very high.
• Psychedelics – When used in combination with other psychedelics, each drug’s physical, cognitive and visual effects intensify and synergize strongly. The synergy between those substances is unpredictable, and it is recommended to start with lower dosages than one would take for either drug individually ⁹.
• LSD + ice, speed or ecstasy – can increase the chances of a bad tripa disturbing hallucinogenic experience that can cause users to feel extremely anxious and threatened More and can also lead to panic ²⁸.
• LSD + alcohol – increased nausea and vomiting ²⁹.
• alcohol – takes the edge off the effect and can help you to relax; drunkenness disappears during the trip; large amounts increase the nausea; drinking on the comedown is not recommended,
• amphetamines – not really recommended; LSD has a speedy effect,
• cannabis – dulls the experience in the come-up; heightens the peak; brings back the effect during comedown,
• ecstasy (MDMASee Ecstasy More) – known as ‘candy-flipping’; the ecstasy good feeling can reduce the chance of a bad tripa disturbing hallucinogenic experience that can cause users to feel extremely anxious and threatened More but pay attention to ecstasy’s safety requirements,
• mushrooms – cross tolerancethis is the process by which the receptors in your brain become habituated to the action of a drug. When tolerance is reached, more of the drug is required to achieve the same effect. With benzodiazepines, and probably with many other classes of drugs as well, tolerance is virtually always associated with some degree of physical dependence. If you find that you are experiencing tolerance, this is a clear warning sign that you may have formed a dependence. More usually present; not much point in taking other psychedelics at the same time,
• tobacco – no dangers, but you should be aware of the damage smoking is doing to your lungs,
• tranquillisers – police and medical staff are fond of administering Valium and other sedatives to bad trippers; its depressant effects can reduce panic in those experiencing deep anxiety; watch the dose, though; do not combine with other drugs with depressant qualities: alcohol, GHB, ketamine, heroin ²⁷.

Although LSD is not physically addictive, it is possible that a minority of users might become psychologically addicted to it (feeling like they need to keep using it). If you feel you are using more than you feel comfortable with, try taking a break for a few weeks. A short term tolerancethis is the process by which the receptors in your brain become habituated to the action of a drug. When tolerance is reached, more of the drug is required to achieve the same effect. With benzodiazepines, and probably with many other classes of drugs as well, tolerance is virtually always associated with some degree of physical dependence. If you find that you are experiencing tolerance, this is a clear warning sign that you may have formed a dependence. More to LSD will build up, so if you use for several days in a row the effect will be slightly less each day.

There have been some links established between people with existing psychological or mental health problems finding these worsened after using LSD. If you have a history of mental illness (such as depression) either personally or in your family, think very carefully before experimenting with LSD ⁴.

• know your limits – don’t start off with high doses, learn what your tolerancethis is the process by which the receptors in your brain become habituated to the action of a drug. When tolerance is reached, more of the drug is required to achieve the same effect. With benzodiazepines, and probably with many other classes of drugs as well, tolerance is virtually always associated with some degree of physical dependence. If you find that you are experiencing tolerance, this is a clear warning sign that you may have formed a dependence. More is gradually,
• be aware that single doses can vary even in visually identical samples,
• do not use LSD if you are taking lithium or tricyclic antidepressants – there can be extremely dangerous interactions between these substances,
• try to use with people you know and trust around you, ideally at least one of whom is not using a substance, or at least make sure someone knows where you are,
• try not to get overstimulated – it is very easy to get dehydrated if you’re dancing for hours, and anxiety can sometimes set in, causing a potential increase in paranoiac ideation,
• if you find or fear that you may be experiencing a ‘bad trip’ try to find a place you feel safe and remember – it will pass ⁴.
• if users do become anxious they can usually be calmed down and reassured by others – a big hug often helps (called baby-sitting). Remember that bad trips will pass in time.
• it is difficult to concentrate while tripping and very dangerous to drive or operate machinery.
• do not use LSD if you are taking lithium or tricyclic antidepressants as it can interact with these substances in dangerous ways.
• if dancing, remember to take time to rest and cool down. Sip a non-alcoholic drink slowly.
• as with all drugs, start low by taking only a small amount ⁸.

LSD enjoyed high levels of popularity during the sixties and seventies. After waning popularity it experienced a resurgence in the late 80’s. Since then however it has dropped massively in popularity, having been supplanted by stimulants like cocaine, other hallucinogens like magic mushrooms, ecstasy and emergent Novel Psychoactive Compounds.

Whereas in 1996 almost 14% of 16 – 24 year olds reported having used LSD, by 2012/13 this had dropped to around 2% ⁵.

LSD was invented by Albert Hoffman and there is a story that he discovered the hallucinogenic effects by accident, when he spilled some liquid LSD on himself ¹⁶.

LSD was first synthesised in the laboratory of Albert Hoffman in 1938 from the alkaloids found in the ergot fungus. However, its psychoactive properties were not fully appreciated until 1943, and it was marketed under the trade name ‘Delysid’’ ‘y Sandoz Laboratories in 1947 for use in treating psychiatric patients. LSD has an interesting history and has had many noted advocates for its ability to provoke the ‘big’ philosophical questions, such as the meaning of life, sex (although LSD is not noted for its aphrodisiaca substance that enhances sexual desires More qualities) and mortality, these are often the genesis of bad trips. Beginning in the 1950’s the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIAthe US Central Intelligence Agency More) began a research programme code named Project MK-ULTRA. Experiments included administering LSD to CIAthe US Central Intelligence Agency More employees, military personnel, people at both ends of the intelligence and social spectrum and random members of the general public in order to study their reactions, often without the subject’s knowledge. The project was revealed in a US congressional report in 1975, after much speculation about its existence, design and purpose.

LSD began to become popular recreationally in the US in the 1960’s. The increase in its use coincided with the rise of the psychedelic/hippy movement, to whose devotees it was considered to be mind-expanding. This trend soon caught on in the UK, and ‘acid trips’ have continued to have a place in certain sub-cultures (especially amongst ‘e’ generation clubbers, where it was known throughout the 1990’s as ‘acc-eeid’) up to the present day where it remains popular in ‘club’ settings, something that would have been unthinkable to the original users. It was scheduled in the UK under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 ⁴.

Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann first synthesised LSD in 1938 as an employee of the Santoz Laboratories. Hofmann was conducting research on the therapeutic value of the lysergic acid compounds as a circulatory and respiratory stimulanta drug that acts on the Central Nervous System, increasing some rates of function such as heart-rate, though no great effects were discovered and his research was discontinued. Hofmann discovered the hallucinogenic effects of LSD in 1943 when he accidentally ingested some of the drug. This discovery renewed interest in the drug as a possible treatment for schizophreniaa severe mental disorder with symptoms such as hallucinations, paranoia, and disorganised thinking More and as a research tool in studying mental illness ³⁰. In 1947, Sandoz marketed LSD under the trade name ‘Delsid’ as a psychiatric panacea, curing everything from schizophreniaa severe mental disorder with symptoms such as hallucinations, paranoia, and disorganised thinking More and criminal behavior to sexual perversions and alcoholism; they introduced it to the United States prescription drug market a year later ¹⁸.

From the 1940’s to the mid 1970’s, LSD was extensively researched in the psychiatric community. Psychiatric students were encouraged to use LSD as a teaching tool to help understand schizophreniaa severe mental disorder with symptoms such as hallucinations, paranoia, and disorganised thinking More. Soon, LSD emerged as a drug of abuse by some in the psychiatric and medical community who shared it with friends. By the 1960’s, casual use of LSD evolved into a subculture that celebrated mysticism and psychedelia and embraced media personalities such as Harvard University instructor Dr. Timothy Leary ¹⁸.

Though casual LSD use spread through the early 1970’s, publicity about the negative effects of LSD, such as flashbacks and bad trips, as well as prohibitive legislation and the efforts of law enforcement agencies led to a decreased popularity by the mid-seventies. By the early 1980’s, the value of LSD use in psychotherapy was discredited, and scientific study of the drug ended ¹⁸.

Today’s recreational users of LSD often include people in their late teens and early twenties who are involved in the psychedelic music scene ¹⁸. In the 1990’s, LSD was among the ranks of ‘club drugs’ that, along with MDMASee Ecstasy More and ketamine, was found at dance clubs and large underground parties known as raves ³¹. A recent national study suggests LSD use among high school students is declining, and may be at its lowest level in many years ³²,